پاورپوینت کامل Philosophy of Science 34 اسلاید در PowerPoint

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پاورپوینت کامل Philosophy of Science 34 اسلاید در PowerPoint

اسلاید ۴: Perspectives on scienceScience (and Technology) Studies (STS): interdisciplinary, empirically informed research on the nature of science, including history, sociology, and philosophy of science (and technology).What exactly is the relation between science and technologyپاورپوینت کامل Philosophy of Science 34 اسلاید در PowerPoint: normative vs. descriptive (factual, empirical).The philosopher of science doesn’t merely describe facts about science but tries to determine what science ought to be like. (Cf. the normativity of epistemological theories of knowledge and justification, etc.: epistemology is not just concerned with the ways we actually form beliefs but with how we ought to form and justify our beliefs.)

اسلاید ۵: Philosophy of science and other areas of philosophyProblems in the philosophy of science are deeply connected with other philosophical problems, e.g.:Metaphysics: do the objects of scientific research exist independently of us (and of scientific theories, etc.) (The problem of realism.)Epistemology: what is scientific knowledge (Philosophy of science can be seen as the application of general epistemology to the special case of scientific knowledge.)Logic: what is (valid) scientific inference likePhilosophy of language: do scientific theories (theoretical terms and concepts) refer to independently existing entities, and are theories true or false (in the correspondence sense)Ethics and political philosophy: is science value-free or value-laden; what kind of ethical and social problems do science involvePhilosophy of religion: does science refute religion

اسلاید ۶: Philosophy of science: general and specialGeneral philosophy of science: problems common to all scientific disciplines (including the humanities): truth, inference, explanation (vs. understanding), etc.Special problems in relation to different scientific disciplines, e.g.:Philosophy of mathematics: do mathematical entities exist, what is mathematical truthPhilosophy of physics: time and space, the interpretation of quantum theoryPhilosophy of biology: the nature of life, the reality of speciesPhilosophy of history: the reality of the past, the determinacy of the truthvalues of claims about the past, historical explanationPhilosophy of education: the scientific worldview and education, the science vs. religion issue, etc.

اسلاید ۷: The aims and goals of scienceCognitivism: Science aims at knowledge and/or truth about the world (classical definition of knowledge as justified true belief).Truth (knowledge) is valuable as such, for its own sake (intrinsic value).Cf. scientific realism: there is a world out there, independently of us, and science aims at finding out what it’s like.Behavioralism: Science aims at practical recommendations and problem-solving.Knowledge and truth are not sought for their own sake.Instrumentalism: knowledge has only instrumental value, not intrinsic value. (N.B. In a more specific sense, instrumentalism denies that scientific theories have truthvalues.)

اسلاید ۸: Basic and applied researchA moderate cognitivist admits that knowledge can be instrumentally valuable and applicable to practical problem-solving, even though the primary motivation for seeking knowledge is not instrumental but, e.g., pure intellectual curiosity.Basic research: knowledge/truth for its own sake.Scientists aim at true (or truthlike) theories about the way the world is.Applied research: instrumentally valuable knowledge, applicable to practical problems.Applying the results of basic research, scientists aim at workable solutions to various problems we face in our practices.”Design science” (Niiniluoto): designing a solution to a practical problem, etc.

اسلاید ۹: Science and human interestsJürgen Habermas: natural science is motivated by a technical interest (governing nature), the human sciences by a hermeneutical interest (understanding), and critical social theory by an emancipatory interest (liberating humans from domination structures, etc.).Background: Frankfurt School cultural critique, the ”dialectics of the enlightenment” (Adorno, Horkheimer).Is ”pure” natural science independent of technical domination of nature possible at allA major issue in science and technology policy. Should scientific research simply be seen as a tool for business, and society in generalThe value-ladenness vs. value-independence of scientific research (we will return to this problem in due course).

اسلاید ۱۰: Applied researchTypically, the results of applied research are not theoretical statements about the way the world is (as in basic research) but ”technical norms”: if you want to achieve goal X, then you ought to do Y (cf. von Wright 1963).If you want to cure a patient with an infection, you ought to use antibiotics.If you want to achieve maximum destructive potential for your nuclear bomb, you ought to build it like this…N.B. The interests upon which the technical norms arrived at in applied research are based are not morally neutral! There is always room for valuational discussion of what kind of interests we ought to pursue, and why.Technical norms have truthvalues: they are true or false statements about the relations between aims and the means necessary for achieving those aims.

اسلاید ۱۱: Applied research (continued)We might consider the relation between basic and applied research in, e.g., the following scientific disciplines:MedicineAgricultural scienceEducationPolitical scienceHistory (of ideas)Aesthetics (and art education) …Is it always possible to draw a clear distinction between basic and applied research Sometimes, even the most ”basic” research problems might be motivated by the potential applicability of the results of research.

اسلاید ۱۲: Science and technologySome etymology: episteme (knowledge) vs. tekhne (skill).Technology: tekhne + logos, ”the study/doctrine of skills”.Is technology just applied science, or the construction of applications based upon applied research Or is (contemporary) science crucially dependent on technologyScience (today) necessarily requries a technological context.Tecnology can be understood very broadly (cf. John Dewey, Larry Hickman): any tools intelligently used to promote human purposes are technological – including, e.g., language.Philosophy of technology studies the nature of our technological culture. Technopessimism (Heidegger) vs. moderate optimism, meliorism (Dewey, Hickman).Science and technology st