فایل ورد کامل خواص چشمگیر دانش به عنوان یک کالای اقتصادی: یادداشت

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تعداد صفحات این فایل: ۲۰ صفحه

مسئله کالای عمومی و معمای دانش مربوط به دنیای تخیلی است که در آن داتش تدوین می شود، هزینه های یادگیری، تدوین و انتقال پایین است و دانش به شدت تجمعی است.
هنوز مسئله ایجاد شده دانش عمومی با گذشت زمان افزایش می یابد. چرا؟ زیرا ما به یک دنیای فرضی بیشتر نزدیک می شویم دنیایی که در آن هزینه حاشیه ای یادگیری، قالب بندی و انتقال دانش به طور پیوسته افزایش می یابد. وقتی دانش حفظ شده و توسط زبانی انتقال یابد، حلقه کاربران واقعی بسیار کم خواهد بود. اگر توسعه یابد، انتقال کتبی و زبانی به آسانی موجب تغییر محتوی دانش می شود. از این روی، محدودیت های فیزیکی برای توسعه جامعه کاربران وجود دارد. سفر دانش فرایندی است که در آن سوال کالای عمومی مطرح نیست. با استفاده از نسخه های نوشته ها و مقالات، اغلب امضا ها برای کنترل کار دانشمندان استفاده می شد. این جوامع موجب کاهش بعد اثرات خارجی شده بودند.
از سوی دیگر، وقتی ترکیبی از فناور یهای دیجیتال و شبکه های انتقال الکترونیکی جدید موجب انتقال هم زمان برنامه های علمی شوند، مسائل ناشی از بی رقیب بودن دانش حاد تر می شود. دلیل این است که این فناوری ها امکان توسعه نامحدود مزایای واقعی دانش را می دهد. این نوع از دنیا که با انتقال و قالب بندی هزینه های صفر همراه است و متشکل از جوامع بزرک از عوامل هوشمند است، می تواند در بسیاری از علوم ظهور یابد. یک HP9000 ساده موجب تغییر شیوه کار دانشمندان در زمینه فیزیک ذرات شده است. هر روزه ۲۰۰۰۰ پیام الکترونیکی، چکیده مقالاات دانشکاهی را در ۶۰ کشور رد و بدل می کنند. این پیام ها توسط خوانندگان علاقه مند باز یابی می شوند.

عنوان انگلیسی:THE REMARKABLE PROPERTIES OF KNOWLEDGE AS AN ECONOMIC GOOD: A NOTE~~en~~

SECTION 1 – THREE PROPERTIES OF KNOWLEDGE AS AN ECONOMIC GOOD Knowledge is a strange good, with remarkable properties that differ from those characterising conventional tangible goods. These properties are ambiguous, for while on the one hand activities concerning knowledge production generally have a very high “social return” and are therefore a powerful mechanism in economic growth, they also pose daunting problems of resource allocation and economic coordination. ۱ – A good that is difficult to control and generates externalities Knowledge is a non-excludable good; in other words, it is difficult to make it exclusive or to control it privately. It is a fluid and portable good. A firm finds it far more difficult to control its knowledge than its machines, for numerous opportunities for leaks and spillovers arise. Information and knowledge continuously escape from the entities producing them, and can thus be used freely by rivals. The literature uses the generic term “positive externalities” to denote this positive impact on third parties, from whom it is technically difficult to obtain compensation. Knowledge or information externalities, of interest to us here, are said to be “non-pecuniary”. They denote the fact that knowledge produced by an agent benefits other agents without financial or any other kind of compensation. They are different from so-called “pecuniary” externalities that relate to cases in which inventors are unable to recover from buyers the full value derived from the innovation in terms of lower costs or better quality2 . 2 – Knowledge is a non-rival good The notion of non-excludability of an economic good is a fairly general property that economists encounter in many situations. For example, a fruit farmer provides a positive externality to his neighbour the beekeeper, whose bees gather pollen in the orchard; a musician does the same thing for her neighbour who loves music. In all such cases the characteristic of a total lack of control enables one to account for situations in which services are accidentally provided to third parties, without any financial compensation. The fact remains, however, that in the cases described above the externality is limited since the resource concerned is either exhaustible or difficult to access (congestion). The beekeeper can set up a dozen hives to take full advantage of the orchard, but if he set up a thousand hives most of the bees would not have access to it. The music-lover on her own can enjoy her neighbour’s music, but a thousand people wanting to listen to it would hear nothing. This is where knowledge differs from situations in which positive externalities are limited. As a resource, knowledge can be characterised by its inexhaustibility. Why Because unlike bees in the orchard, economic agents are not rival users of a resource when that resource is knowledge. The use of existing knowledge by an additional agent does not imply the production of an additional copy of that knowledge (the author does not have to produce an additional unit of knowledge every time its use is extended). To explain this strange property to economics students, the example of “giving a watch and giving the hour” is often used. A teacher gives his watch to a student in the class. This operation changes nothing as regards the aggregate: there are still n watches in the classroom. It is a rival good in so far as the students are rivals for its consumption. If now the teacher just gives the hour (assuming that only the teacher has a watch and there is no clock hung on the wall), we immediately see that transmission has a completely different meaning: the aggregate changes completely. Whereas only one person had the information in the beginning, the entire class now has it and the fact of having transmitted it does not deprive the teacher of anything. It is a non-rival good in so far as people do not have to compete for its use. We thus see that transmitting knowledge is a positive sum game which multiplies the owners of that knowledge indefinitely (as opposed to transmitting a watch which is a zerosum game). Instead of the term “non-rivalry”, some authors prefer “infinite expansibility” (David, 1993; Keely & Quah, 1998). They justify their choice with the idea of describing this property by means of a positive term, and also with the following reference to a great thinker, T.Jefferson, who, in 1813, wrote: “That ideas should freely spread from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and improvement of his condition, seems to have been peculiarly and benevolently designed by nature, when she made them, like fire expansible over all space, without lessening their density in any point, and like the air in which we breathe, move, and have our physical being, incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation” (quoted by David, 1993; our emphasis). We note, moreover, that Jefferson thus highlighted the two characteristics underlying the power of positive externalities in the case of knowledge production: the difficulty of private control and non-rivalry.

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